久久久无码人妻精品无码_6080YYY午夜理论片中无码_性无码专区_无码人妻品一区二区三区精99

US EUROPE AFRICA ASIA 中文
China / HK Macao Taiwan

How the public toilet changed Hong Kong

By Christopher Dewolfe (China Daily HK Edition) Updated: 2012-08-30 13:37

Hong Kong was not a healthy place in the late 19th century. For decades after the British founded the colony in 1842, the Chinese settlement of Sheung Wan struggled with overcrowding and chronic disease.

How the public toilet changed Hong Kong

A “five-star toilet” near tourist site Lam Tsuen Wishing Tree, where a HK$2.8 million was spent. The government has been criticized for spending too much on Hong Kong’s public toilets. (Mok Kwok-cheong / China Daily)

Things were especially bad in Tai Ping Shan, a hillside enclave of tenement houses packed with coolies who worked as manual laborers. In 1881, the colonial government hired Oswald Chadwick, a British engineer, to conduct a survey of the district's homes. He was alarmed by what he found. In some buildings, 80 tenants crammed into a single flat. People shared space with chickens and pigs. Drains were built haphazardly, so they clogged and became septic, toxic sludge leaking into the surrounding soil.

Chadwick was particularly appalled by the way human waste was handled. "As a general rule throughout Hong Kong, in accordance with time-honored Chinese practice, human excrete are removed by hand, on what may be called the 'pail' system," he wrote in his report, which was published in 1882. "Neither deodorisation or disinfection of any kind is attempted."

By contrast, the homes in Hong Kong's European districts were well-equipped with water closets attached to municipal drains. Such luxuries were not afforded to the fast-growing Chinese population, which was limited to cramped quarters like Tai Ping Shan because land use laws prohibited the expansion of tenement housing — a strategy used by the colonial government to keep the European and Chinese populations apart.

Public facilities were non-existent. Entrepreneurs took advantage of the situation by building public latrines — just 25 for a population of more than 100,000 — from which they made a hefty profit by selling human excrement as fertilizer. "On the whole the existing latrines are offensive and a nuisance, both as to position and construction, and they are so crowded as to render improvements to maintenance very difficult," wrote Chadwick.

Until then, nobody had made a direct link between Hong Kong's filth and any outbreak of disease, but Chadwick suggested that an epidemic of some sort was inevitable. "He predicted that if there was an outbreak, it would be a disaster because sanitation was so bad," says Lau Kwok-wai, executive director of the Conservancy Association Centre for Heritage, which specializes in the history of Western District. "He was right."

In 1894, an outbreak of bubonic plague killed more than 3,000 people in Tai Ping Shan. In response, the government demolished the entire neighborhood and rebuilt it on a grid of streets surrounding Blake Garden, Hong Kong's first public park. In 1904, it opened Hong Kong's first public toilet and bathhouse on Pound Lane, with space for 28 men and 10 women.

For the first time, people who had been forced to live in their own filth "had a chance to clean themselves," says Lau. The toilet and bathhouse were immensely popular. Two decades after it opened, in 1926, the Pound Lane facility was used by 224,363 people — one out of three Hong Kong residents. "I spoke to some kaifong (neighborhood people) and they said that even in the 1960s they didn't have toilets," says Lau. "Everyone would queue up for the bathhouse at night."

Hong Kong was not unique in building a network of public toilets and bathhouses. By 1915, most British towns had at least one bathhouse. New York was notorious for its lack of public toilets; Author and playwriter Henry Miller once wrote, “I know that I am in distress when I walk the streets of New York. Wondering constantly where the next stop will be and if I can hold out that long.” But New York too invested in public facilities, opening 1,821 new toilets in parks and subway stations in the 1930s alone.

Where Hong Kong stands out is the way it has maintained and expanded its network of free, government-operated public toilets. Today, there are 1,606 toilets in Hong Kong's streets and parks, not including those operated by the MTR, shopping malls and privately-operated wet markets. By contrast, New York has almost entirely dismantled its network of public toilets, converting many into storage spaces and even shops, if they weren't simply sealed off and abandoned.

"Public toilets allow us all to get out of the house, stay out longer, go to new places and experiences greater freedom in work and leisure," says Gail Ramster, a design researcher at the Royal College of Art in London. "They're a public service that meets a public need."

Previous Page 1 2 Next Page

Highlights
Hot Topics
...
久久久无码人妻精品无码_6080YYY午夜理论片中无码_性无码专区_无码人妻品一区二区三区精99

    在线亚洲欧美专区二区| 精品福利视频一区二区三区| 午夜久久久久久久久久一区二区| 欧美日本国产一区| 日本成人在线网站| 久久久久久久久久美女| 成年人网站91| 亚洲国产成人va在线观看天堂| 欧美精品精品一区| 国产在线播精品第三| 中文字幕一区二区三区精华液| 欧美羞羞免费网站| 免费久久精品视频| 国产精品美女久久久久久久久| 在线看国产日韩| 久久99久久久欧美国产| 国产精品美女久久久久久久久 | 久久国产麻豆精品| 欧美国产欧美亚州国产日韩mv天天看完整| 99热精品国产| 日本不卡一区二区三区| 亚洲国产高清在线观看视频| 欧美在线色视频| 激情av综合网| 一区二区三区精密机械公司| 欧美成人福利视频| 91在线免费视频观看| 日本一区中文字幕| 国产精品美女久久久久久| 9191精品国产综合久久久久久| 国产精品一级黄| 亚洲国产精品久久久久婷婷884| 久久新电视剧免费观看| 欧美性色黄大片| 国产成人精品影院| 午夜国产精品影院在线观看| 国产精品无遮挡| 欧美一卡2卡三卡4卡5免费| 成人激情动漫在线观看| 日产国产欧美视频一区精品| 国产精品久久久久久久久搜平片 | 欧美日韩黄色影视| 国产99精品国产| 日韩精品乱码av一区二区| 日本一区二区三区电影| 555夜色666亚洲国产免| kk眼镜猥琐国模调教系列一区二区 | 免费成人在线观看视频| 自拍偷拍欧美激情| 精品国产精品一区二区夜夜嗨| 欧美在线一区二区三区| 成人免费视频网站在线观看| 日本欧美韩国一区三区| 亚洲欧洲美洲综合色网| 亚洲国产精品成人久久综合一区| 国产精品一二三四五| 亚洲一区免费观看| 中文在线一区二区 | 精品sm在线观看| 欧美日韩免费在线视频| 成人动漫在线一区| 精品亚洲国内自在自线福利| 亚洲国产cao| 成人欧美一区二区三区黑人麻豆| 欧美本精品男人aⅴ天堂| 欧美美女视频在线观看| 色噜噜狠狠成人中文综合| 国产成人精品网址| 九九精品一区二区| 日韩成人精品在线| 亚洲电影在线免费观看| 亚洲视频一区二区免费在线观看| 国产午夜一区二区三区| 欧美tickling网站挠脚心| 欧美日韩精品欧美日韩精品一| 91影院在线观看| 白白色亚洲国产精品| 国产精品亚洲一区二区三区在线| 免费人成黄页网站在线一区二区| 午夜精品123| 亚洲成a人v欧美综合天堂下载| 亚洲欧美日韩久久| 亚洲图片你懂的| 亚洲欧洲另类国产综合| 国产精品久久久久一区二区三区| 精品嫩草影院久久| 日韩三级视频中文字幕| 欧美一区永久视频免费观看| 欧美日韩国产综合草草| 欧美性猛交一区二区三区精品| 91视频www| 91在线免费看| 色狠狠色狠狠综合| 色综合久久久久综合| 一本到高清视频免费精品| 91小宝寻花一区二区三区| 91在线观看一区二区| 99精品视频免费在线观看| av成人免费在线| 99国产精品国产精品久久| av网站一区二区三区| av电影在线观看一区| 99国产精品久| 色婷婷国产精品综合在线观看| 色综合 综合色| 91国产免费看| 欧美男男青年gay1069videost| 欧美日韩精品是欧美日韩精品| 在线综合视频播放| 日韩一区二区免费在线电影| 日韩免费电影一区| 精品国产sm最大网站免费看| 久久―日本道色综合久久| 中文字幕第一区第二区| 亚洲三级小视频| 亚洲一二三区不卡| 日韩精品国产精品| 精久久久久久久久久久| 国产91精品入口| 91蜜桃视频在线| 欧美日韩一区三区四区| 91精品国产色综合久久久蜜香臀| 日韩午夜中文字幕| 久久久91精品国产一区二区三区| 国产精品三级久久久久三级| 亚洲青青青在线视频| 亚洲国产aⅴ天堂久久| 美日韩黄色大片| 国v精品久久久网| 日本黄色一区二区| 91精品国产综合久久精品app| 欧美xxxx老人做受| 国产欧美一区二区精品婷婷| 亚洲人亚洲人成电影网站色| 亚洲国产精品久久不卡毛片 | 一级特黄大欧美久久久| 日韩国产在线一| 久久精品国产一区二区三区免费看 | 色噜噜偷拍精品综合在线| 欧美日韩黄色一区二区| 精品久久久久久久人人人人传媒| 欧美国产精品一区二区三区| 亚洲激情图片qvod| 毛片av一区二区三区| 成人av网址在线观看| 欧美日韩久久不卡| 久久久精品国产99久久精品芒果| 亚洲视频一区二区免费在线观看| 日韩激情视频网站| 成人国产亚洲欧美成人综合网| 欧洲一区二区av| 久久亚洲欧美国产精品乐播| 亚洲色图欧美偷拍| 久久精品国产亚洲高清剧情介绍| 成人午夜又粗又硬又大| 欧美欧美欧美欧美首页| 欧美国产精品中文字幕| 日韩中文字幕麻豆| 成人一道本在线| 666欧美在线视频| 中文字幕一区二区三区在线播放| 首页国产欧美久久| 成人亚洲一区二区一| 欧美精品一二三| 一色屋精品亚洲香蕉网站| 日韩国产在线观看| 色综合久久综合网欧美综合网| 精品久久人人做人人爽| 亚洲线精品一区二区三区| 国产成人精品三级| 91麻豆精品国产自产在线| 国产精品女人毛片| 久久99精品一区二区三区三区| 色婷婷久久综合| 国产三级一区二区| 日本成人中文字幕| 欧洲av在线精品| 中文字幕乱码日本亚洲一区二区| 日韩电影在线免费观看| 91亚洲男人天堂| 久久先锋影音av| 日韩avvvv在线播放| 91福利在线观看| 国产精品久久久久久久蜜臀| 久久精品国产免费| 欧美视频一区二区三区四区| 国产精品视频线看| 极品少妇xxxx精品少妇| 欧美日韩一区中文字幕| 亚洲人精品午夜| 国产xxx精品视频大全| 日韩欧美激情在线| 亚洲国产综合在线| 色综合网色综合| 日本一二三四高清不卡| 久久99久久99小草精品免视看| 欧美日韩一级黄| 亚洲美女区一区| 成人av集中营| 久久精品人人爽人人爽|